Dark matter and the CCA Cosmology hypothesis

This presentation is to identify what dark matter is and why it behaves as it does.  The dark matter parameters are based on an alternative to the big bang hypothesis that makes verifiable predictions for the dark matter as well as other “puzzles” of Cosmology.  At its inception (beginning in the 1960’s) this concept was to be different from the Standard Big Bang and as the hypothesis matured it showed that it was providing calculable temperatures, densities and other parameters (Nucleosynthesis, etc.) rivaling the big bang values.  In addition the quantized continuum and oscillations of this hypothesis “almost” causes it to be considered as a “dual” to some versions of the String Theories.  It must be kept in mind however, that no claim is made of connection to the big bang or to String Theory, except to present its own predictions.  The verifiable predictions may also be similar to other theories but this concept “Continuum Creation and Annihilation Cosmology” (CCA Cosmology) stand s on its own independent of others.  If the predictions are correct any valid hypothesis must predict the same events and values.  Here this hypothesis is presented in a very minimal description only to present the “how” and “why” CCA and Dark Matter are correlated.  Prior to presenting any arguments for this CCA Cosmology and describing dark matter, one must understand that whatever is presented here is with reference to the concept that CCA demands the universe to be “HOLISTIC” (Physics only) with all its meanings and nuances.   This automatically makes the universe non-local and correlates cosmic values to particle values (the concept of Dirac’s large numbers may have a basis in truth).   In the philosophy dictionary the definition of “holistic” is given as:

                “Holistic; characterized by comprehension of the parts of something as intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole” and so it will be taken here. 

Another disclaimer to be kept in mind here is that only densities are “actual” to their descriptions, because current sizes and total numbers are subject to interpretation (as for example by the FLRW metric).  Here a given current size or total number is defined as a parameter value of “consequence” where an observer at any pseudo- center in the universe will measure the same values as long as the actual universe is what is presented or larger.  This is partially the cause of the Cosmological Principle.

While this hypothesis is developed here as relating to Dark Matter some other known puzzles in Cosmology and Physics, may also incur some beneficial explanation by this description. 

 (What the hell, why not brag,  “actually” answers to most of the “Big” unknowns can be given by CCA.  Such as Baryon Asymmetry, why three and only three generations of fundamental fermions, what is Antimatter and Dark Energy, low primordial Entropy, Supersymmetry, etc,.  Also “perhaps” most importantly, why is there dark matter? (“Who ordered that?”).  Other answers with verifiable values can be presented by CCA Cosmology).    These correlations will be highlighted here in bold characters.  This CCA Cosmology hypothesis is based on only one postulate and starts with one cosmic oscillation, uses no “new Physics” and evolves the universe via Cosmic Symmetry Breaks (CSB) that usher in cosmic phases and new forces.  Here, the postulate is presented and only the phases that are directly defining the dark matter, which by CCA predates baryonic matter with calculable parameters, are presented.  The phases that are directly involved with baryonic matter to the present epoch (Phases-3alpha, 3beta and 3gamma) are not included here in this section. Descriptions and relationships of CCA are minimal for brevity.

POSTULATE

“Prior to time” (“Before the Beginning”) there  “exists always”  an Infinite (Apeiron) Timeless (Achronon) Homogeneous, Isotropic, Symmetric, n-dimensional (n>4 ) Entity, or Sympan (a  monad super set S) “That Is All There Is, but is not-Nothing” and it “suffers” a finite in extent, (Phase-0, or “Separation” with broken symmetry) “zero thickness” perturbation m, or “crack” or fissure  or discontinuity (m=1 ) and changes one of its dimensions by an “operator” Q, that causes, at the same instance, time to “Start” within this perturbed finite region. 

The word Apeiron is used here as infinite in extent and has a connotation of space (region) with no end, open set.  The word Achronon is used to identify a region or anything that is outside of time.  A timeless entity as referenced to time here is defined as timeless not just only in the sense of eternal or everlasting, but as time having no meaning.  Some of the usage is not the most clear because the intent is hard to precisely define.  For example, a region that has no time but can “access” simultaneously the past, present and future has no specific name except to say it is all-knowing (pangnostic?).   Either timeless or Achronon and either infinite or Apeiron may be used interchangeably except where a more specific meaning is required. 

This discontinuity or finite fissure within the Achronon can be considered as a finite membrane “undulating” within the infinite unperturbed environment.  The “Sympan” is ALL; it contains all regions of time and all of no time, and all dimensions. This region of the finite perturbation is our proto-universe which is identified herein as the universe or proto-cosmos or “set” Cosmos (set C).  The region outside our Cosmos (universe) is identified as set A or Aylon.  This has an interesting boundary, perhaps QM Entanglement, because it has not suffered dimensional discontinuity and is instantaneous to infinity.

The continuum within the fissure or spacetime continuum at this phase has no states and is as a “primitive dark energy” with a non-zero Lagrangian and initially has energy with a total perhaps of ~1089 erg equivalent (total vacuum energy).  This fissure, Cosmos,  is finite in extent with a total initial Separation volume, ‘V0 > 1097 cm3 (equivalent) at Phase-0.  The tensor bellow indicates what each point of the fissure requires to erase this crack or perturbation to result in the vanishing of the universe. This fissure or membrane is of “zero thickness” in the four dimensions.

                        dfi = SjPijnjdA                                                                                                         

There are no particles of any kind (including no photons and no gravitons, during the undulating epoch of the membrane (Phase-0 and Phase-1):  Only oscillations of the membrane itself.  It seems that the global undulations may also oscillate the direction of time and can do this only once, or uncountable number of oscillations.  The membrane eventually “chose” positive time, otherwise nothing happens.  After the initial discontinuity of Phase-0, the next event is Phase-1 which closes the undulating membrane upon itself and becomes more stable as a closed surface Hypershell and begins an adiabatic collapse by a factor of about 1080 perhaps requiring >1014 years equivalent, to a probable 1018 cm3 total volume before the collapse ends and expansion begins (Diabatic, Phase-2).  The collapse transforms the global undulations into “small” local surface oscillations of the Hypershell of ever increasing frequency (considered as perfect fluid and need the  density “within” and “outside” the Hypershell, elasticity, surface increasing  density, hardness, initial conditions etc, etc,. not easy to figure).  The collapse changes the continuum density by about 80 orders of magnitude to an equivalent mass density >1048 g-cm-3.  During the collapse one can “decipher” the  variable oscillation as becoming a scalar massless Nambu-Goldstone state that at the end of the collapse (start of Phase-2, by a third Cosmic Symmetry Break) decays into massive states.  It seems to change continuum localized oscillations to particle with mass oscillations.  As local oscillations “decouple” from the global environment simultaneously they can be considered as becoming particles.  The definition of a particle by CCA is the vibrating (wave spread, Complementarity) quantized concentration of the continuum.

This finite discontinuity by phase changes and Cosmic Symmetry Breaks, CSBs) leads to:

1.         The parameters of elementary particles are coupled-quanta with the universe parameters (small and cosmic distances).

2.         A direct equivalence of Continuum (volume) and Energy exists. Because of Cosmic Symmetry Breaking the Lagrangian is not zero “vacuum” energy. Empty Newtonian space (Nothing) does not exist in the CCA Cosmos because of non-zero vacuum energy and quantized continuum.  Continuum deformation and “flow” is as described by General Relativity.   Continuum “IS the Background” within (upon) which all events occur as local changes to the Continuum. This Continuum is also continuously “created” by a Creation Operator <Q> by increasing the total number of quantized omnipresent sources (dark energy, with continuity equation > 0) and “annihilated” again by quantized specific location sinks (mass, vortices, continuity equation <0).  The gradients of the “Continuum-Flow” or individual geometric change, or continuum deformation determine the equations of motion of states (sinks) and is defined as gravity of sinks, or of mass (gravity begins at start of Phase-2).

3          A third family of fundamental particles called Xena, is “required” with only 7 “Sigma- dimensions” (known quanta, nothing esoteric) all bosons no fermions, and are neither composed of leptons nor quarks but are non-baryonic matter.   These Xena are not obeying “normal” Supersymmetry but do form a correlated Supersymmetry with the leptonic particles, especially the neutrino, as presented in the table of Modified Standard Model below.  These Xena are; a singlet massless scalar oscillation (the quasi-particle of Phase-1) of “null generation” of the continuum changing frequency by the collapse as degenerate standing waves of the continuum (Phase-1).  This scalar state is the primordial progenitor oscillation; first of the global membrane (discontinuity) then transitions to local resonance waves of the continuum and eventually “causes” and is the progenitor of all states in the universe (mother/daughter symmetry) including the leptons, quarks and dark matter.  This massless scalar state can be a Nambu-Goldstone (broken) symmetry boson.  This quasi-state is the means by which the global undulations are changed first to local degenerate oscillating states and then decay into states with mass and subsequently to all the baryonic states.  This quasi-state (xi-0) is a transition means towards massive fundamental particles.  Also, the xi-0 has null spin, null generation, null designation of matter/antimatter, initially null mass and null charges of any kind.  It seems to need only (3+1) values in the sigma space.  Beginning with Phase-2 (third Cosmic Symmetry break) this progenitor state (resonances or nodes) has to decay because of the CSB.  This Phase-2 CSB causes the bifurcation, net zero, of matter/antimatter, (+-) spin and  (+-) generation all with even values but sum equal to zero for the universe.  This means that any particle interaction must conserve these net values.  The decay of the xi-0 quasi-state can now be defined with the use of these conservation rules.  The xi-0 quasi-state cannot decay into one particle because one daughter particle decay violets all conservation rules.  A two daughter decay either violates the conservation rules or causes the universe to annihilate, which obviously did not happen. Using Occam’s razor principle it seems that three different “flavor” daughter decays satisfies all the rules. This is why three and only three generations of leptons and quarks exist.  It can be concluded therefore that the universe needs three different flavors of conserved massive decay products (Xena) and any more than three will again cause unnecessary redundancies.  The xi-0 decays therefore into three massive Xena pairs and each state with spin-one and of even generation number 2, 4, 6.  Three different flavors are minimum, but the total minimum number of these three states for the xi-0 decay is four massive Xena:  One of second generation, two of fourth generation and one sixth generation that combined to sum “zero” of the xi-0.

            x0 => (x2 + 2x4 + x6 )


The definition of a particle by the CCA Cosmology is basically a “deformation” or quantized concentration of the continuum itself and not a separate different substance entity (again, this causes the complimentarity of Q M).  These Xena states behave different from the “normal” baryonic matter in several ways.  The highest generation, or generation 6, x6, rather than normally the lowest generation as in leptons and quarks is a stable Xena state and the least massive.  In addition all these Xena states only exist in less number of “dimensions” of a so called “Sigma-space” than the space of the baryonic matter.  They exist with 7 values of this sigma space and are caused prior to the final broken cosmic symmetry of the creation of the final tri-axes of sigma-space (quark).  The leptons require 10 such quanta values while the quarks need 11+ and are caused by the last symmetry breaking of Phases-3+.

The scalar progenitor state x0  of Phase-1 in affect “takes” the global oscillations of the continuum and “changes” these oscillations to local surface oscillating nodes by the collapse (increasing frequency standing waves up to a frequency of 1037per second) that eventually form (decay into) states with mass by the end of the collapse.  This is because the Cosmos discontinuity, which behaved as an undamped membrane has closed-in upon itself and became a finite Hypershell temporarily collapsing within the Sympan. 

These resonance oscillations of the continuum itself are the Xena-0 states, x0.  Massless (some form just energy, only 4 sigma values?), scalar quasi-states that become defined, separable and degenerate by the collapse end causing the global Entropy to go to its minimum.  The number of microstates goes to one, Ω = 1 (degenerate) and probability, Pi = 1/ Ω).  This is the cause for the low Entropy of the primordial universe.

            S = kB ln Ω + S0                                                                                                      

            S = - kBSum i PilnPi

The number N, of these identical oscillations (no internal flow of Entropy) is set by the continuum, by the parameters of the fissure, the cosmos 3+1 area (kRu2 about 106 cm minimum) and the individual x0 (k’l2 Planck length Lp) at the instant Phase-2 starts.  These are not ad hoc values but are based on several well known observed values and fundamental constants all in mind that the universe is holistic with conserved Cosmic sums (conservation rules are caused by the existence of the Aylon).  The universe is non-local and these values lead, with no other choice, to the present values and complexity of our universe. Most of the correlations by CCA between particle and universe parameters are based on the known forces.  The gravitational force can be represented by the Newtonian constant G, while the electrostatic and nuclear forces can be identified by the charge square the fine structure constant and the fundamental particle masses.   The holistic correlations of the universe/particle values are many and diverse.  One of the more diverse correlations is the Plank length Lp, the dark energy and the value of the atomic Rydberg constant (R) and possibly the neutrino mass.  One would wonder about the connection of these three values, but because CCA is a “quantized” continuum hypothesis the Planck length can define the maximum strength of the forces (appearing at the final tri-axis) and also gravity. It can also define the “minimum” equivalent mass of the continuum as m=5.1x10-45 g (m = (mp2cLp)/4h) and defines the density of “unperturbed” dark energy (mass at infinity) that can be found as 6.7x10-30 g-cm-3 see also Bernoulli, Pascal formulation, which also define this density from global continuity equation.  This continuum or cosmic dark energy density is “controlling” the quantum of space of hydrogen-like atomic spectra via the Rydberg constant R = 1.098x105 cm-1.  The Rydberg value can of course be calculated by the fundamental constants that are set by the entire universe parameters.

            Dark Energy density = m(R)3  = (mp2cLp/4h) (mea2c/2h)3 = 6.77x10-30  g-cm-3

The use of the Rydberg value allowed the checking of the global values of the critical density and the dark energy density by continuity equations and atomic dimensions and the Planck length and forces.  The values describing the critical and the dark energy densities of the universe via Pascal/Bernoulli and the gradient of the cosmic potential with the final values of 9,48x10-30 and 6.7x10-30 g-cm-3  respectively, or the dark energy currently is 71.4% of total (black hole contribution needs to be reconciled).  These as well as all values of CCA are in agreement with WMAP and other observational data.
In CCA the strength of the forces are determined by the inverse of the mass square of the “specific” mass of the “appropriate” generation particle.  For example, gravity is defined by the second generation Xena (smallest generation but most massive 10-11 g) and EM by the electron (first generation).  In CCA there is an equation which correlates these forces and “almost by itself” verifies the CCA hypothesis which is demanding the existence of a third family of fundamental states, or Xena none-baryonic, bosons. 

All the forces, particle families and most of the fundamental constants (by substitutions) are embodied in this equation.  Here, the Gu (Guniverse) is the Newtonian constant, e2      (e=4.80320451× 10 −10 electrostatic unit) is the electrostatic charge squared, which also “has” Planck’s “hc”, with a, being the fine structure constant. The mx2, mp, me (3.4x10-11, 1.67x10-24 , 9.109x10-28) are the rest masses (in g) of the 2nd generation Xena, the proton mass (quark sum generation 3) and electron mass (generation 1) respectively. This simple relationship that also gives Planck mass Mp is:

                      e2/Gu = (2p /a) (mx2mp/me)2     = 3.45x10-12   g2     

                        [(3.45x10-12) (2p /a)]1/2 = 5.45x10-5  g  = Mp                       

Except for the Xena states and gravity all other states and forces cannot appear until the universe enters the Phase-3 and its sub-phases.  It is noted that this relationship only shows the relationship of the strength of the forces and nothing is said about how the physical forces relate.  The universe however does not eliminate any values or constants of previous phases but “adds” on them additional parameter values for any new states (also in Evolution).  This Planck mass Mp is because mx2 = 2 (hcmp/Gu)1/3 that define the dark energy at Phase-0 and Phase-1 and dark matter  of Phase-2. The Phase-1 (scalar quasi-particles or oscillations) and Phase-2      (spin-1fundamental states and spin-2 exchange states, graviton, the first force to appear is gravity) both these phases are totally bosonic phases and no fermions can exist.  There is a possibility of instantaneous information exchange but no Tachyons’ as such.  To define and verify what dark matter is however, only the CCA Cosmology presentation to the start of  Phase-2 is needed.  The sub-phases of Phase-3 define the leptons and quarks and all that is more familiar with our universe.  The overall timeline of evolution of the universe is shown below.  This also shows the interactions of each family of states:  They can only interact with the forces directly below and to the left of each family.  Xena interact only by gravity, leptons by gravity, photons and W/Z and quarks by gravity, photons, weak and gluons (and mesons).  All three families of particles can be traced back to the progenitor quasi-state of Phase-1.  In essence therefore the universe can be evolved from one postulate and one oscillation and all with known Physics.

 

x0 => [Ggraviton ó (xi)] => [gphotonó(Leptonsi/2) + vector bosons] => [g0gluonsó(Quarksi/2)]

  CSB      Gravity          => CSB        gravity+electroweak                      => CSB gravity+electroweak+color

Dark Matter

To determine the parameters of dark matter one must discover how the local surface oscillations relate to the dark matter.  Phase-1 by adiabatic collapse can be considered as compressing the continuum at each oscillation “focus” and increase this continuum density by about 80 orders of magnitude by the time the collapse ends (probably 1014 years from start to end of collapse). 

With this symmetry break of Phase-2 in addition to the massive states, because of how exchange states are defined by this CCA Cosmology a massless tensor spin 2 (here graviton) exchange state is predicted and must exist.  The Physics of CCA Continuum and relativistic spacetime are the same (different only in some CCA clarifications of extreme energy >1018 eV remnant primordial gravitons, interacting in present near space avoiding CMB, GZK cut-off and perhaps contributing to the Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays which can be up to 1023 eV cut-off limit of such gravitons).  The signature of “knee” and “ankle” of cosmic rays follows the mass of Xena and maybe related.  The behavior of the CCA can now define dark matter and does not require to be presented here except to say that at Phase-2 only Xena can exist and interact only by gravity or by Xena exchange state no other forces possible at this Phase-2.  In addition to gravity however the dark energy is active at this phase but is more complicated than a simple linear increase.  Because of high densities and small universe volume.  It does not substantially change the dark matter however, but only assists gravity and cause the seeds of the large structures and voids (artomorphic) early in the universe. 

Without a lot of detail the pivotal relationship that defines the evolution of the universe and begins with dark matter is the equal probability of decay of the quasi-particle.  The actual decay has equal probability for either, but by the CSB the results are forced to become for our universe:

                        x0 => (x+2 + 2x-4 + x+6 )/( x-2 + 2x+4 + x-6) >1014  

This inequality will take the universe to the present via extreme changes along the way such as a hot “small” big bang, the universe was at some time baryonic antimatter, then a radiation phase by a “Grand Annihilation” (cause of Theory of Nucleosynthesis and light element densities and Eta) to the present Baryonic Asymmetry by decay of the 2nd and 4th generation of Xena.  Because the universe is what it is such as the electron is matter and has negative charge the Xena+6 dark matter state is forced to be non-baryonic but it is also forced to be antimatter.  This balances the universe with respect to matter/antimatter equality and throughout the evolution of the universe.  Also, because Xena only interact by gravity (only 7 sigma values) they cannot annihilate with baryonic matter (10+ sigma values) even at the present where there are many more baryonic particles than Xena. There are two matter nucleons and two matter leptons per one antimatter Xena.  The particles that control the total cosmic baryonic and cosmic masses are the two leptons per generation and the Xena per even generation. The quark groupings (Nucleons) are for fine tuning the universe to become what it is. Taking the above decay one can calculate how many quasi-particles were there during the Phase-1 collapse. For whatever cause (time dilation and dark energy?) the collapse stopped. This can be taken as the minimum area at the changeover for each quasi-state oscillation to decay into mass and the Planck length area of 2.6x10-66 cm2 plays a role. Also, the minimum radius of the global Hypershell at the collapse was again associated with the Planck mass as 4.306x106 cm and k = ½, giving N the number of quasi-states at the end of the collapse as ratio of the two areas:N = K(Ru2/Lp2) = k(4.306x106)/(1.616x10-33)2 = 0.5(7.11x1078) From the above relationship where each quasi-state decays into the four massive Xena it must then be that the stable Xena+6 or the present dark (anti) matter is a one-to-one correspondence in the number density with the quasi-state. That is, the present total number of dark matter states has to be 3.55x1078 Xena+6 in the universe, giving a dark matter cosmic mass density of 2.13x10-30 g-cm-3 or 22.4% of total in the universe (omega =1) critical is 9.48x10-30.To avoid writing tomes here about the advantages and predictions (some short comings) of CCA and application to the existing universe, the following Tables of the Dark Matter statistics and the completion of the Standard Model are presented and they are self-explanatory.
TABLE 1 DARK MATTER VITAL STATISTICS
What is Dark Matter (DM)? A different view based on an alternative hypothesis
PARTICLE NAME…………………….…………..Xena6
SYMBOL…………………(Greek lower case xi ) ξ+6
MASS…………………………………………………1.83X10-23 g …..10.4GeV/c2 
SPIN……………………………………….……….boson +1
GENERATION……………………………………sixth (+6)
TYPE…………………………………………………neutral antimatter (because electron is negative and matter)
LIFETIME………………………………………….stable
FAMILY …non-baryonic, Xena, one of three members [mass in g; ξ2~ 10-11; ξ4~ 10-18; ξ6~10-23 all neutral bosons]
WHEN PREDICTED……………………………..1983
WHEN CREATED IN UNIVERSE……Start of expansion at Phase-2 (by Cosmic Symmetry Break CSB, with Nambu-Goldstone state spin 2 massless exchange state)
SIGMA-QUANTA (values)……………………… only 7, leptons need 10, quarks need 11+?
MATTER ANTIMATTER ANNIHILATION ……NO! Sigma differences prevent this with baryonic matter (by CCA no cross species direct annihilation)
INTERACTIONs……………………only via tensor spin-2 (graviton) 7 sigma values onlyPRESENT NUMBER DENSITY…………………… ~ 0.116 per m3 dark antimatter xi+6 states* 
*average volume to include galaxies and intergalactic space combined, Earth bound #densities are much lower because of dynamics of xi6 and causing higher densities as shells and rings outside galactic mature systems (Kuiper/Oort-cloud-like geometries) and within high escape velocity objects
TOTAL NUMBER IN UNIVERSE………3.55x1078 states in the “observable” universe
TOTAL DM COSMIC MASS ……….…..6.50x1055 g (“co-moving”)TOTAL DM COSMIC DENSITY……………………. 2.126x10-30 g-cm-3
FINAL COSMIC COMPONENT ………22.4% (not including black holes) of total equivalent mass (omega=1)
MASS RATIO DARK TO BARYONIC MATTER………..(2.126x10-30)/( 3.88x10-31) = 5.48
NUMBER RATIO DARK TO BARYONIC NUCLEONS..……(3.55x1078)/(7.11x1078) = 0.5
XENA AND BARYONIC MATTER……Xena Parent particles of leptons and quarks Can they be detected by colliders? Very rare. matter antimatter (xi+6 + xi-6) products hard to decipher. Single (ξ+6) more probable (ATLAS possible data) P+ + P+ (> 50** GeV) => (ξ+6)+[ µ- +µ- +Σ + + Σ+ + (xD+ - Plethora of jets)] **if NO top quark involved (if tau/Ξ cascade combination more likely but not enough mass). If sufficient energy available to include top and/or bottom quarks about ~200 GeV/c2, more probable? not sufficient analysis (can resemble Higgs?)
All these values not ad hoc, but from “alternative” decades old hypothesis (CCA Cosmology) which can also answer other cosmic puzzles. To here, if one considers CCA Cosmology to be a valid hypothesis, the puzzle of dark matter is solved and can be substantiated by predictions and observations. This is from the large structure and the Nucleosynthesis (Eta, or Eta10) and light elements of the universe to the findings that dark matter can be a spin-1 state (PAMELA). The prediction and integration of the Xena family of states by the CCA Cosmology seems to modify and also appears to complete this Standard Model (as shown below). 

TABLE 2 Proposed modified model to include dark matter and gravity

It can be considered as a transformation by CSB’s and by rules for one set of states to form daughter states.

(#) e-charge number;   [#] = generation number

 x0   progenitor state, 0-mass?, scalar, perhaps not as a particle but only as continuum oscillation that causes massive states

zero-mass exchange bosons

G0  graviton Spin 2

Strength   1/(mx2)2

g0 photon Spin 1

1/(me)2  

g0 gluons  spin 1

(1/(me)2)(2p/a)2

Massive exchange bosons

(scalar?)

Z0      W±   (Z0’ scalar?)        mesons

Vector 1/(me)2(2p/a)-1                various

 

 

Fundamental particles

 

Fundamental Bosons spin 1, Xena, no photons, no gluons

    Symmetry  Fundamental  Fermions spin 1/2

Leptons,   no gluons               Quarks,  gluons

Strong  symmetry                “Weak” symmetry

x2mass3.4x10-11  g

(∅ )     [2]

n0  (0)    [1]  <

u  (+2/3)     [1]

e-  (-1)     [1]

d   (-1/3)     [1]

x4    mass 10-18  g  

 (∅ )     [4]

n0  (0)    [2]

c   (+2/3)     [2]

m-  (-1)     [2]

s    (-1/3)     [2]

x6mass 1.8x10-23   g

(∅ )      [6]

n0  (0)     [3]

t    (+2/3)     [3]

 

t-  (-1)      [3]

b    (-1/3)     [3] 

Sequential evolution of the universe

The exchange states determine a force which causes each family to interact only with the states of each group below them and to the left.