Biomass consumption 5.1. Biofuels Rural and urban biofuel consumption were estimated using respective per capita consumption at a district level, and results aggregated at the state and national level. Total biofuel (all fuels) consumption was 538MTyr_1 for 1996–1997. Rural fuelwood consumption was 293MTyr_1, with the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal accounting 51% of total consumption. Urban fuelwood consumption was very low (9MTyr_1). Crop waste consumption was 116MTyr_1, with east-coast states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal) contributing 50% of the total. The estimated dung-cake consumption was 121MTyr_1 (Fig. 2) with Uttar Pradesh alone contributing 40MTyr_1. The central and west-coast states have lower per capita consumption and moderate population densities resulting in lower consumption of biofuels. There is a wide variation in the fuel mixfrom region to region, with a national average of 56 : 21 :23% for wood, crop waste and dung-cake, respectively. The largest contribution to biofuel consumption is from Uttar Pradesh (13%, dungcakeF7%; fuelwoodF4%;) followed by Andhra Pradesh (11%, fuelwoodF5%; crop wasteF4%;), Bihar (10%, fuelwoodF7%; dung-cakeF1%) and Madhya Pradesh (9%, fuelwoodF7%; dung-cakeF1%;). Fuelwood consumption density was higher (>150 t km_2) in the eastern India and central parts of northeast states (Fig. 3a). The higher per capita consumption of fuelwood in the eastern plateau and hills (eastern Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar), and eastern Himalayan region (West Bengal) and high population density in the mid Gangetic region (Bihar) resulted in the higher density of consumption. The lowest consumption densities (o50 t km_2) were estimated for the western Himalayan region (lower population density), western Rajastan (lower per capita consumption and population density). Moderate consumption intensities (50–150 t km_2) were seen in the rest of India. Only east-coast India (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa) had high (150–300 t km_2) crop waste consumption density due to the highest per capita consumption, accounting for 47% of total consumption (Fig. 3b). Southern India (‘‘southern plateau region’’) had moderate densities (50–150 t km_2), and remaining parts of India had lower values (o25 t km_2). The dung-cake consumption intensity in the Uttar Pradesh was highest (>150 t km_2) (Fig. 3c) from higher per capita consumption and population density. The ‘‘east-coast plains and hills’’ showed moderate densities (resulting from moderate per capita consumption) and rest of India had low densities. population density), western Rajastan (lower per capita consumption and population density). Moderate consumption intensities (50–150 t km_2) were seen in the rest of India. Only east-coast India (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa) had high (150–300 t km_2) crop waste consumption density due to the highest per capita consumption, accounting for 47% of total consumption (Fig. 3b). Southern India (‘‘southern plateau region’’) had moderate densities (50–150 t km_2), and remaining parts of India had lower values (o25 t km_2). The dung-cake consumption intensity in the Uttar Pradesh was highest (>150 t km_2) (Fig. 3c) from higher per capita consumption and population density. The ‘‘east-coast plains and hills’’ showed moderate densities (resulting from moderate per capita consumption) and rest of India had low densities. 5.2. Forest biomass Total forest biomass burned was 39MTyr_1, accounting for only 7% of the total biomass burning in India (Fig. 2). Accidental fires/shifting cultivation accounted 70% and controlled fires accounted 30% of total forest biomass. Madhya Pradesh (43%), Andhra Pradesh (24%), Orissa (7%) and Maharashtra (4%) together contributed 78% of the total mostly from accidental fires/shifting cultivation. The forest biomassburning was high in the two districts of Andhra Pradesh (Vishakapatnam, Vizianagaram) and east Madhya Pradesh (>150 t km_2) (as these two states account 40% of total) (Fig. 3d). Moderate biomass burning was observed in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, northeastern states of Nagaland and Manipur, and rest of India had low values (o25 t km_2). Biofuel consumption increased by 20%, 16% and 14%, for wood, crop waste and dung-cake, respectively, between 1990 (Sinha et al., 1998) and 1996–1997. This increase reflects only population growth, because the per capita consumption used was the same for the previous and current estimates. Refinements in the present estimate include district level population growth, regional variations in fuel-consumption and fuel-mix, resulting in more realistic consumption and spatial distribution. In previous regional (Asia) emission inventories, biofuel consumption for India was 375MTyr_1 for 1988 (Arndt et al., 1997) and 499MTyr_1 for 1990 (Streets and Waldhoff, 1998), compared to the present estimate of 538MTyr_1 for 1996–1997. The somewhat higherestimates in the previous studies are partially due to the inclusion of crop waste and dung-cake in urban areas. However, crop waste and dung-cake use as biofuel inurban areas contributes only 3.5% of total biofuel consumption in India (Joshi, 1991).